Beyond the Scientific Way

Archive for February, 2009

Dr. Fahmi Amhar
(Head of Geomatics Research Bureau, National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping – Indonesia)

Moslems believe that any knowledge comes from God, and Qur’an is His Saying. Hence, as the source of knowledge, Qur’an is surely correct. So, what about knowledge regarding matter, energy, space-time and interaction of objects in this world, which often called as “physics”?

Some Moslems significantly say “Yes.” Hence emerge the term: “Islamic physics”. This is a number of theories or more precisely “hypotheses” from a physical law claimed by them “founds” in Qur’an. As an illustration, there is three examples here: (1). Theory that earth is the center of solar system (geocentric), even the universe, since Qur’an have never mention any verses (ayat) that expressing earth to revolves, but the sun, month and star are revolving the earth (QS 13:2, 14:33). This theory also supported by a notable Sheik from Saudi Arabia, that giving his religious advices that believing to heliocentric theory can plunge some one into heresy. (2) Theory that assert lodestone (magnetic iron) serves the purpose of energy generating which has no ending. This theory base on QS 57:25, expressing that God create iron which has a super strength in it. They (this theory proponents) interpret the strength as energy. (3) Theory about seven atmosphere layers, because Qur’an tell that rain fall from the sky (QS 35:27) meanwhile God was created seven skies (QS 41:12), so they interpret the rain happened at first sky layer.

Considering those theories and claims, they likely repeat what which been done by the mutakalimin (philosophy lover) in the past, that searches for a conclusion only based on assumption, even if the assumption comes from a Qur’an verse that interpreted subjectively. Of course, the mutakalimin way of thinking has never yield any real scientific breakthrough, let alone usable for practical matters.

The Moslem physicists in the golden era of Islam were people who educated from beginning of with basic Islamic tenets (aqidah). Typically, they have memorized Qur’an before reaching mature age (baligh). And they firmly comprehended that the nature has her own objective laws, that can be revealed when they conduct observation and research patiently and cautiously.

Ibn al Haytsam (al-Hazen) was the pioneer of modern optics when he published his book in 1021M. He founds that the seeing process is about the fall of light into the eye, not because of the strength of eye-shaft as believed by people since Aristotle’s era. In his book, al-Haytsam showed various means to build simple binoculars as well as simple camera (camera obscura).

It is interesting to know that al-Haytsam did his optical experiment at the time of his house arrestment, after he failed to fulfill the duty from the Egypt Governor (Egypt Amir) to realize the Nile river dam project. Then, he was released after the Amir discovered that al-Haytsam optical inventions were equal with his investments.

Ibn al-Haytsam also the pioneer to starts a tradition of scientific method to test a hypothesis. It was 600 years precedes Rene Descartes, which assumed by others as the father of European Scientific Method in Renaissance era. The ibn al-Haytsam’s scientific method started from empirical observation, formulation of problems, formulation of hypotheses, hypotheses tests with experiments, analysis of experiment results, data interpretation and conclusion formulation, and ended with publications. This publication then assessed by peer-review that enabling every people to traces and, when needed, repeats what have been done by a researcher. Peer review processes had become a tradition in the medical world since Ishaq bin Ali al Rahwi (854-931M).

Ibnu Sina also known as Avicenna (980-1037M) had agreed with the concept of the limitation of light velocity. Ash Rayhan al-Biruni (973-1048M) also founds that light far quicker from voice. Qutubuddin al-Syirazi (1236-1311M) and Kamaluddin al-Farisi (1260-1320M) gave the first correct explanation about rainbow phenomena.

In mechanics, Ja’far Muhammad ibn Mozes ibn Syakir (800-873M) hypothesized that celestial objects and “sky layer” are subject to the same physical laws, same with the earth.

Al-Biruni and latter al-Khazini developed experimental method in statics and dynamics, then also hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, that really important in constructing a bridge, barrage (dam), and ship.

In 1121M, al-Khazini in “Book of the balance of wisdom” suggested that gravitation and its potential energy changes, depends on the distance from the center of earth. He also explicitly differentiated between force, mass and weight. This invention is useful in constructing waterwheel.

Ibnu Bajah (Avempace) that passed away in 1138M argued that there will always be a reaction in every action. This theory is very influential in physics, including for Galileo and Newton, and hardly useful for calculating the strength manjaniq, which is a giant catapult that cannon alike.

Hibatullah Abu’l-Barakat al-Baghdadi (1080-1165M) disagreed with Aristotle that said a constant force will yield a uniform motion, when he wrote in his book al-Mu’tabar that a constant force will yield acceleration (acceleration). Accordingly, acceleration is the average of velocity alteration.

Ibnu Rusyd also known as Averroes (1126-1198M) is a mujtahid (learned scholar of Islamic sciences) in fiqih (Islamic law) and also a physicist, in one of his book he defined force as certain level of works which must be done to change kinectical condition of an dilatory object. So, Ibnu Rusyd work is earlier 500 years from Newtonian classical mechanics.

All these illustrations indicates that Physical Islam –if there is one– is a physics that has passed a series of scientific method, which then proved to be applicable to practice. Physics as empirical science can be achieved by every researcher that posses passion on it, without reference to his/her faith. Factual truth of physics is not necessarily be supported by Qur’an and will not perturb any Qur’an verses or the other way, since both of them have different realms. Impelling that a physical fact fits in with a verse or the other way, in fact shows the poor understanding, in terms of the physical fact, or the contents of Qur’an it self. And all of these have never been experienced by the physicist in Islamic golden era.

[Translated by Rizki S. Saputro]

Dr. Fahmi Amhar

Sekarangpun, seni sulap yang mengubah bunga yang dilempar ke dalam topi menjadi kelinci, atau air di dalam kelapa menjadi berasa jeruk tetaplah sesuatu yang menakjubkan.  Pada masa lalu, ada orang-orang yang melakukan hal-hal seperti itu sebagai profesi sehari-hari.  Merekalah para tukang sihir pembuat ramuan.

Mereka biasanya digambarkan sehari-harinya bergelut dengan kuali berisi air di atas api, yang ke dalamnya dimasukkan segala benda yang dianggap memiliki kekuatan magis.  Benda berkekuatan magis ini mulai dari cula badak, telur ular kobra, sampai batu meteor.  Hasilnya adalah ramuan atau benda-benda yang juga dianggap berkhasiat.  Ramuan paling diminati orang tentunya berbagai jenis obat-obatan.  Namun ada juga “ramuan cinta” yang dipercaya dapat menarik lawan jenis, “ramuan keberuntungan” untuk memenangkan pertandingan, hingga benda-benda sakti seperti cincin yang dapat membuat pemiliknya kebal atau keris pusaka yang dapat mengantar pemiliknya berkuasa.  Berabad-abad para tukang sihir dari segala penjuru juga mencari “batu bertuah” yang konon berkhasiat dari untuk membuat ramuan yang dapat memperpanjang umur sampai untuk mengubah (men-transmutasi) bongkahan besi atau belerang menjadi emas.  Andaikata para alkimiawan (demikian julukan ahli kimia berbau sihir pada masa itu) berhasil, niscaya dinar emas tidak berharga lagi, karena mudah dibuat dari benda-benda lain.

Namun pada masyarakat Islam, profesi tukang sihir semacam itu lambat laun tersingkir.  Muncullah para kimiawan yang bekerja dengan cara-cara ilmiah dan dapat dirunut segala langkahnya dalam menciptakan material yang baru.

Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber, 715-815) diakui oleh banyak orang sebagai “Bapak Ilmu Kimia”, karena jasanya memperkenalkan metode ilmiah eksperimental dan juga lebih dari 20 macam peralatan laboratorium seperti alat destilasi, kristalisasi, purifikasi, oksidasi, evaporasi, filtrasi dan kristalografi, seperti dalam bukunya Kitab al-Istitmam.

Jabir adalah juga orang pertama yang menemukan berbagai jenis asam, ketika sebelumnya orang hanya mengenal cuka.  Jabir menemukan asam nitrat, asam sulfat, asam klorida, asam asetat, asam citrat dan sebagainya.  Beberapa unsur juga ditemukan oleh Jabir, seperti Arsen, Antimon dan Bismuth.  Dialah orang pertama yang menggolongkan belerang dan air raksa sebagai unsur kimia.

Dalam Buku tentang Mutiara yang tersembunyi, Jabir menuliskan 46 resep untuk membuat gelas berwarna, juga 12 resep tentang produksi mutiara buatan dan penghilangan warna dari batu mulia.

Pada 864-925 Muhammab bin Zakariya ar-Razi (Rhazes) menulis berbagai alat yang ditemukan olehnya dan pendahulunya (Calid, Geber, al-Kindi) seperti pembakar, tabung reaksi, pelebur substansi dan sebagainya.  Dialah yang pertama kali menuliskan rincian berbagai proses kimia seperti kalsinasi (al-tasywiya). Pelarutan atau solusi (al-tahlil), sublimasi (al-tas’id), amalgamasi (al-talghim), cerasi (al-tasymi), dan metode untuk mengubah substansi menjadi pasta atau padatan lunak.

Ar-Razi menggolongkan bahan kimia dalam: empat-spirits (air raksa, sal-amoniak, arsenik dan belerang), empat logam (emas, perak, tembaga, besi, timah, timbal dan air raksa), tiga belas batuan, tujuh borates dan tiga belas garam-garaman.  Dia juga menulis berbagai substansi buatan seperti timbal-oksida, tembaga-asetat, tembaga-oksida, besi-asetat (bahan baja), sodium-hydroksida, dan sebagainya.  Dalam bukunya Kitab sirr al-asrar (Buku tentang rahasia dari rahasia) Ar-Razi juga menulis tentang nafta atau minyak bumi dan cara menyulingnya menjadi minyak bakar atau minyak lampu.

Ar Razi juga seorang dokter.  Ketika memilih tempat untuk membangun rumah sakit di Baghdad, dia meletakkan beberapa potong daging di berbagai lokasi.  Lokasi di mana daging itu paling lambat membusuk adalah lokasi ideal untuk dipilih sebagai tempat rumah sakit.  Dalam bukunya itu ia juga menulis tentang teknik membuat antiseptik dan sabun.

Pada tahun 1000-1037 dunia kimia diwarnai oleh Ibnu Sina (Avicenna) yang menemukan proses kimia untuk mengekstrak esensi dari zat wangi (fragrances) atau dari minyak.  Teknik ini digunakan di pabrik parfum dan minuman.  Dia juga menemukan termometer udara yang dipakai dalam laboratoriumnya.

Sementara itu teori transmutasi logam (yang berabad-abad dipercaya para penyihir sehingga mereka mencari batu bertuah untuk mengubah besi menjadi emas), ditolak oleh Al-Kindi, juga Al-Biruni, Ibnu Sina dan Ibnu Khaldun.  Teori transmutasi itu memang tidak ilmiah.

Pada abad-13, Nasiruddin al-Tusi memaparkan versi awal dari hukum konservasi massa (sering salah disebut hukum kekekalan massa), dengan menuliskan bahwa materi mungkin berubah wujud, tetapi tidak akan musnah.

Will Durant menulis dalam The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith: “Chemistry as a science was almost created by the Moslems; for in this field, where the Greeks (so far as we know) were confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced precise observation, controlled experiment, and careful records. They invented and named the alembic (al-anbiq), chemically analyzed innumerable substances, composed lapidaries, distinguished alkalis and acids, investigated their affinities, studied and manufactured hundreds of drugs. Alchemy, which the Moslems inherited from Egypt, contributed to chemistry by a thousand incidental discoveries, and by its method, which was the most scientific of all medieval operations.”

(Kimia adalah ilmu yang hampir seluruhnya diciptakan oleh kaum muslim; ketika untuk bidang ini orang-orang Yunani tidak memiliki pengalaman industri dan hanya memberikan hipotesis yang meragukan, sementara itu para ilmuwan muslim mengantar pada pengamatan teliti, eksperimen terkontrol, dan catatan yang hati-hati.  Mereka menemukan dan memberi nama alembic (al-anbiq), menganalisis substansi yang tak terhitung banyaknya, membedakan alkali dan asam, menyelidiki kemiripannya, mempelajari dan memproduksi ratusan jenis obat.  Alkimia yang diwarisi kaum Muslim dari Mesir, menyumbangkan untuk kimia ribuan penemuan insidental, dari metodenya, yang paling ilmiah dari seluruh kegiatan di zaman pertengahan).